Global Corporate Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Global Corporate Strategy - Essay Example In order to supply the electricity Britain needed to develop infrastructure which would allow it to export electricity all across the world (Macalister, 2010). Prior to 1989 all electricity needs of Britain and Wales was taken care by the Central Electricity Generating Board. However there was a sharp decline in power stations during the period 1958 to 1986 because of increasing technical complexities associated with the industry.With privatization and deregulation of the electricity industry in 1991, CEGB went through a massive restructuring of the organization. PowerGen was formed to take care of the non nuclear power generation. The report has been framed in the context of PowerGen. The report starts with an understanding of the terms corporate planning and strategy. It then tries to analyze the impact of changes in organizational structure on corporate planning of PoweGen. The next section deals with understanding of the core competencies and capabilities of PowerGen and how it has helped PowerGen to maintain its market share and profits. It also analyzes the core competencies and capabilities of EDF and E.ON. The report also explores the impact of privatization and deregulation on PowerGen. The report ends with understanding of the centralized nature of planning of CEGB with reference to Hofstede’s article titled â€Å"Cultural constraints in management theories†. Corporate planning involves setting the corporate goals and objectives and identifying long term plans to ensure development of the company. Corporate planning is based on macroeconomic forecasts of various economic factors which were then analyzed with regards to the organization’s performance. It is a description of various economic trends like market share, demand conditions, costs and margins, marketing trends and industry trends. In 1974 and 1979 the world was hit by oil crisis which led to macroeconomic

Fn 11 Cooking Medium Matrix Essay Example for Free

Fn 11 Cooking Medium Matrix Essay Cooked Product| Medium of Cooking| Cooking Method| Description| Sensorial Qualities| Grilled Pork Liempo| Air| Charcoal Grilling| The pork, after being marinated, is placed on a hot grill where it is cooked from the hot air caused by the heat source, coal. The pork is also cooked because of the heat transfer from the metal grill. | The pork becomes a dark brown color and is slightly chard in some areas (having grill marks); the meat is tender and easy to chew while the fat on the meat is greasy and moderately soft; the pork’s flavour is very developed due to the marinade. It also has a smoky flavour which is caused by the charcoal. | Pork Sinigang| Water| Boiling| The pork is boiled in a pot of water for several minutes with onions and tomatoes and spices like tamarind and such. When the pork is thoroughly cooked, the vegetables are then added and allowed to cook as well. | The meat and the fat are very pale in color; the pork’s meat and fat are both very tender. The fat melts in your mouth and is very gelatinous; the pork has a less developed taste and much of the flavour is transferred to the broth of the Sinigang. | Fried Pork Chop| Oil| Pan Frying| The pork is marinated and is then pan fried in a skillet with a fair amount of oil. The pork is first cooked on one side then is flipped over and cooked on the other. | The pork becomes golden brown; the skin clinging to the fat becomes crispy while the fat becomes soft and tender. The meat is often slightly tough; flavour is developed because frying lets the meat’s juices come out and because of the marinade. The taste of the pork is strong in the meat. | Savoury Pork Stew | Oil and Water| StewingSearing | The pork is first seared at high temperature for a few minutes. After this, the pork is then cooked in a pot with water and other ingredients, like tomato paste and such, to let the meat tenderize, develop flavour, and stew. After the meat is completely cooked and when the water has reduced to a thick sauce, vegetables like potatoes and carrots are added to improve flavour. | The pork becomes a dark brown and is often coated in a thick sauce; the fat and the meat are very tender and easily break apart;the meat develops a lot of flavour due to the stewing process; a lot of the pork’s fat becomes rendered into the sauce of the stew.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Case Study

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Case Study CASE STUDY : COPD This piece of work will explore the comprehensively physical examination, differential diagnosis and various diagnostic tests to confirm the disease condition that is CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE. It will then move further to discover the comprehensive treatment plan and present a argument on an excellent method to treat the disease condition on the basis of current evidenced based studies. The actual name of the patient is replaced with another name so as to retain confidentiality (Dimond, 2002). Mr.X is a 58 year retired office manager came to the emergency ward with his son. He had chief complaints of difficulty in breathing, severe cough, weakness and was feeling discomfort. Patient general appearance shows that he is weak, sitting in high fowlers position, respiring through pursed lips. Suggest that this type of breathing is the indication of emphysema. Pursed lip breathing helps in emitting the air which is trapped in the lungs and limits the force for taking breath (Rik Gosselink, 2003). History taking and proper investigations are the two main components for confirming the disease condition. Complete history is essential to determine the exact etiology of shortness of breath that includes past history of asthmatic attack, family history of asthma, occupational history, present history of smoking, alcohol intake, medication history, episodes of cough whether it is productive or not, presence of any heart problems (Walsh, 2008). COPD develops due to the lack of alpha one antitrypsin hereditary factor. Furthermore the occupational hazards along with genetic factor deteriorate the condition. So detail history collection including all the aspects is significant (Yohannes and Hardy, 2003). History of patient reveals that patient was a chronic smoker from the past 20 years and consume near about twenty cigarettes every day, although patient left smoking 6 months ago his smoking history provides estimation of 20 packs a year. Moreover COPD is more prevalent in patient who consume 20 packs of cigarettes in one year (Georgios et al, 2004). However there are various other diseases that occur due to cigarette smoking such as cancer, heart diseases, pulmonary diseases, influenza, pneumococcal, meningococcal, tuberculosis etc (Arcavi and Benowitz, 2004). Also patient is not able to perform daily activities due to shortness of breath and cough with sputum production. These symptoms are quite common in carcinoma of bronchus, however difficulty in breathing, cough and sputum production are also main clinical symptom of COPD (Pauwels and Rabe, 2004). Moreover, history of the client indicates that plentiful production of sputum for more than three months for two years which shows t he presence of chronic bronchitis (GOLD, 2008). Patient is also not able to sleep during night. Awakening during night which occurs by shortness of breath reveal presence of congestive heart failure or asthma (Price, 2010). Complaints of patient we loss of weight, fatigue, chest tightness due to severe episodes of cough, disturbance in sleep. Dietary history shows that patient is non vegetarian, family history does not provide any significant data. Client having age more than 40 and have sign and symptom such as formation of sputum, difficulty in breathing, history of cigarette smoking and any inhalation of noxious fumes and chances of occurrence of COPD is more at the age above 40 ,therefore patient is believed to have COPD (Vestbo, 2010). Although all the sign and symptom of the client signify that patient is suffering from COPD still functional diagnosis is necessary to confirm the exact diagnosis and proper physical assessment is necessary to confirm the diagnosis (Ferrara, 2011). In high risk cases of COPD proper cardinal sign, body mass index, height and weight of the patient is to be notified as component of assessment (Stockle, 2007). The vital sign of patient are blood pressure:124/76mmHg, height: 174cm, rate of respiration: 20/minute, temperature: 98.2F, Weight: 56kg and body mass index is 19kg/m2. During inspection it is observed that shape of chest of patient is barrel and patient respire with the help of accessory muscle which indicates presence of emphysema (Smeltzer et al, 2009). This less amount of air in the lungs causes disturbance in breathing pattern (Celli, 2007). This alteration in shape of chest shape occur due to the decrease in flexibility of lungs muscles and therefore extra energy is required for this forceful type of breathing as a result client is not able to eat in adequate manner and loosen the weight (Smeltzer et al, 2009). Percussion indicate presence of tympanic resonance that occur because of less motion of diaphragm and presence of wheezing sounds indicating COPD (Celli, 2007). Auscultation indicate that there is extended forced expiratory pattern due to the decrease in air in the lungs. Congestive heart failure or lung fibrosis is differentiated from COPD on the basis of wheezing sound and presence of ronchi. Club shape finger of patient may indicate the presence of other disease condition such as cancer of lungs, bronchiectasis, and pulmonary fibrosis. The skin mucosa of the client is bluish which signify that less of oxygen in blood (American thoracic society, 2004) . Physical assessment of respiratory system does not provide the relevant and valid information for the detection of disease condition but related co morbid state and differential diagnosis are well judged with the help of thorough examination (Mcivor et al, 2004). However the decrease in flow of air in lungs is not predicted with the help of history collection and general assessment. Therefore pulmonary functional test such as spirometry is useful in diagnosing COPD (Travers et al, 2007). Furthermore for identification and confirmation of the COPD and its progress level can be easily identify with the help of spirometry (Stoloff, 2011). COPD is well detected with the help of satandarized device that is spirometry however this device is inconsistent in clinical area (Gold, 2008). Spirometry reading of patient reveals that FEV1/FVC is 56% , this value is less than 70% and it is categorize as stage two that is moderate. However spirometry is not believed to be valid tool for the evaluati on of broad category of airflow obstruction diseases (Borg, 2010, American Thoracic Society, 2004, GOLD, 2008). But provision of bronchodilators are beneficial in diagnosis of asthma and COPD and determine the limit of flow of air that is not reversible fully. Still the exact value of reversibility that helps in judging the patient asthmatic or COPD pdiseases is not known. However differential diagnosis of COPD can be clinically evaluated and also can determine by various non invasive procedures (Vestbo, 2010). Chest radiography is useful technique in excluding various differential diagnosis such as pneumothorax, chronic heart disease, pneumonia (Man et al, 2004). Therefore, to clear out the differential diagnosis, a proper clinical examination and simple investigations including chest radiography could resolve uncertainty if any (Vestbo, 2010). Radiography of chest mostly exhibit clear interstitial markings in patient with chronic bronchitis however there is no particular outcomes that provide evidence that radiography is beneficial for the diagnosis of COPD or Chronic bronchitis (Kane Graham, 2004). In the patient, chest radiography reveals that lung field is hyper distensded, diaphragms are flattened and retrosternal space is more which is the sign of emphysema. Moreover determination of various changes in lungs in case of emphysema can be determined with the help of superior type of chest film (Vestbo, 2010). However with the help of chest x ray it is not possible to detect initial stages of COPD (Gold, 2008). Therefore high resolution Computed tomography is used for identifying emphysema in the initial stages. Moreover the lesions in the lungs can be identifying with the help of high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) without any trouble (Gold, 2008). There are various other diagnostic test which are helpful in COPD confirmation with more accuracy such as arterial blood gas analysis, cardio pulmonary exercise test (GOLD, 2008). The presence of pulmonary emphysema and various other alternative diseases such as asthma and other minor airway diseases can be determined by the value of total lung capacity and diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide(Vandevoorde, 2006) suggest that through examination of blood gas, saturation of oxygen in blood, blood perfusion is determined (Smeltzer et al, 2009). (also supported that arterial blood analysis in moderate and severe cases of COPD should be performed (Vestbo, 2010). However this test is not is not a reliable test to confirm COPD but in high risk cases of emphysema this test is helpful to know hypoxemia (Travers et al, 2010). Value of ABG analysis of patient was PH-7.30, Pao2-84mmHg, Paco2-48mmHg, HCO3-25mg/dl and Sao2 94% Haemoglobin level of patient was 13.4 mg/dl . Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is the disease of respiratory system that causes non reversible and progressive decrease in pulmonary function (Higginson, 2010). The air flow is not proper in lungs due to this reduction of lung function. The diseases it includes are bronchitis, asthma and emphysema. It effect more than three million people in England. (Jones, 2001) In the Western World, the main cause of COPD is smoking, smoking is related with over 90% of this disease, however COPD occurs in merely 10% to 20% of chronic chain smokers. (Beyer et al, 2008)Respiratory illness is also occurred by passive smoking. (Higginson, 2010) Genetic factor is also responsible for yhe occurrence of COPD however there is only one genetic factor alpha antitrypsin that involes in causing this disease. The lack of this genetic factor is the single major risk factor for the occurrence of this disease. Though determine in only one percemt cases of COPD. Contact with noxious substances is the most c ommon cause of COPD. (Yohannes and Hardy, 2003) There are various diseases in childhood such as pneumonia and whooping cough prior to the age of 12 year are considered to be the risk factor of bronchiectasis and bronchiolitis. Females are at high risk of COPD than man however argues that there is no difference in occurrence of COPD in male and females (Lindberg, 2006). The progress of the disease inside body is mostly described by the inflammation that involve central and peripheral airways. By the inhalation of the noxious substances or irritants , inflammation occurs in the central airway. Due to this soreness , there is more secretion of mucus that damage the ciliary clearance. As a result the glands of the mucus turn into large size and therefore more production of mucus take place due to more amount of goblet cells. This increase production of mucus provides an brilliant medium for the growth of microorganism cause the impairment of airway. Repeated infection causes damage to cilliary body and further inflammation. This progression leads to constriction of airway . Following obstruction trapping of air inside lungs occurs that result in hyperinflation, difficulty in breathing and less tolerance to exercise. The chronic obstruction diseases are chronic bronchitis, emphysema (Higginson, 2010). For the appropriate management of COPD, holistic approach must be taken in account (Paul, 2004). Individually management plan must be made that covers the essential components such as termination of smoking, dietary management and function of lungs should be maintained by medication therapy. Instant treatment in emergency unit is started with the provision of oxygen and sometime bronchodilator may be beneficial to find out reaction to the treatment (Gold, 2008). Moreover administration of oxygen helps in treating hypoxemia and hence improves breathing problem (Downs Appel, 2007). However excess utilization of oxygen may lead to withholding of carbon dioxide level in lungs. So it should be provided with cautious (Kevin, 2007). Patient was provided with oxygen therapy for short duration, the partial pressure of oxygen of the patient is 74% so there is no requirement of oxgen for long term (Gold, 2008). Drug therapy is beneficial for the treatment of COPD and it is provided according to the seriousness level of disease condition (Incalzi et al, 2006). In mild COPD cases, short acting beta 2 adrenoceptor agonists is advised whereas in moderate and severe cases long acting beta 2 adrenoreceptor agonist are recommended. Moreover anti cholinergic is beneficial and easily bearable in older people. Pharmacotherapy is essential in relieving the various symptoms however there is no medication that reveals long lasting improvement of lung function (Gold, 2004). Suggest that with the combination of different drug therapy can give better result and reduce the harmful effects as compared to large amount of single dosage. The preference of different bronchodilators depends upon, accomplishment of desired reaction and ill effects (Downs Appel, 2007). Suggest that due to very few harmful effects and less dosage requirement, inhalation route is chosen for treatment (American thoracic society, 2004) . The widely used short acting beta agonist are salbutamol, terbutaline, pirbut erol and salmeterol, formoterol are the long acting beta agonist also methylxanthines such as theophylline , antichollinergic and inhaled corticosteroid are commonly used that are beneficial in reducing m mucus secretion in airway (Nazir and Erbland, 2009). Pharmacotherapy in the patient was begin with the administration of combined therapy of salbutamol of dose 50Â µg with ipratropium 20Â µg. these are the bronchodilators which is provided with the help of inhaled and injection of theophyllin also administered through intra muscular route. There are some other drugs that are beneficial in severe stage such as antioxidants and immunoregulators (Gold, 2008) Improper nutrition in COPD patient is quite general and it has harmful influence on the pulmonary functioning. So helping the client in maintenance of adequate nutrition level is important and beneficial in improving the respiratory functioning (Shepherd, 2010). Moreover the client whose BMI is less than 21 kg/m2 should be given supplementary diet in order to improve condition of client further (Vermeeren et al, 2001). However age associated alteration in structure, height, muscular changes and if value of BMI is more than also malnutrition cannot be identified (Shepherd, 2010). In patient BMI is in normal category instead patient is advised to take adequate calories, carbhohydrate and proteins in diet. Patient is also advised to avoid caffeine, restrict sodium and taking more milk. The other preventive measure is vaccination of influenza. It has much influence in prevention of various acute respiratory illnesses along with COPD. This type of vaccination must be advised to each patient suffering from COPD (Wongsurakiat, 2004) . Patient who is moderate or severe deterioration of lung function then pulmonary rehabilitation is beneficial to gain maximum functioning to manage with disease condition. Patients are motivated to do different types of exercise to keep body healty Such as steps up, walking , various arm exercises, self handling of various activites such as taking medication, that helps in keeping the function of different system appropriately. Also exercise for decreasing hyperinflation and manage dyspnoea such as deep breathing and pursed lip is advised to the patient (Barnett, 2008). Moreover advantages of rehabilitation of lung fuction maintain for numerous months even after the end of this program (O` Donell, 2007) . COPD is the most prevalent problem that effect mostly elderly people. The mai symptom of COPD is shortness of breath, production of cough with sputum. The main cause of occurrence of this disease is cigarette smoking. History taking and physical examination is beneficial in excluding all the differential diagnosis. Through spirometry diagnosis of COPD can be made. Pharmacology is helpful in controlling the further spread of disease but medication does not provide efficient result in long term care. CASE STUDY ON SPINAL CORD INJURY This case study will throw light on the complete physical examination and diagnostic test and a range of laboratory investigation to confirm the diagnosis. It will then undergo detail treatment plan along with differential diagnosis to explain the appropriate intervention on the basis of present evidence sources. Also it will explore the recent issues regarding care of spinal cord injured patent. The actual name of the patient is changed in the study so that data cannot be recognized (Dimond, 2002). Mr. Malik Aggarwal is a 21 year old student studying in University of Greenwich doing mastering in marketing. During summer break in France, Malik was struck with an motorbike accident. During accident he fall harshly on the footpath from his bike and was lying towards his abdomen . This accident was witnessed by the policeman and he quickly gave call for first aid management. Ambulance was arrived soon and emergency staff identify the severity of Malik injury, they protect the neck of the victim with the help of strong board and immobilize the part before transferring him to the emergency department of the closest hospital. Patient was awake and also familiarized with current date, day and location. He was also replying in well manner. After reaching hospital, he complained of loss of feeling on his both legs, severe pain in neck, mild pain on his back and all extremities, patient was not able to move his neck and lower extremities properly. The assessment was carried out by the eme rgency specialist staff, and found that there were contusions and lesions present on his trunk and lower extremities, the restriction of the neck was rapidly maintained by the staff with the help of firm cervical collar. In order to limit further deterioration of condition, patient was supported with cervical traction and head was also supported with motion restricted devices that are helpful in maintaining proper alignment (Grubb, 2006) . The cardinal signs were checked and indicate that patient has Blood pressure of 100/70, pulse rate: 90/minute, respiration: 20/mt, temperature: 98.4 F and oxygen saturation was 90%. During history collection main emphasis should be given on complete mechanism that how the injury took place, this data is confirmed from the witness and also who is present at the time of accident to so as to proceed accurately towards confirmation of diagnosis (Schreiber, 2009). Other physical and social factors should be noticed that may interfere with the proper assessment of pain (Cruz-Almeida, 2007). Moreover complete history plays an important role in knowing possible etiology of different symptoms and also helps in excluding differential diagnosis. Proper pharmacological history , family history and dietary history should be taken because it might be beneficial in knowing the disease (Cox, 2008) . History collection of patient reveals that patient was anxious and had complaint of pain at the site of neck. The constant pain occur due to the contraction of muscles of neck muscls. There were presence of mild lesions on the trunk and extremities. Therefore it might be the case of injury on cervical cord because continual pain is the indication of spinal cord injury (Lee and Ostrander, 2003) . The exact cause of injury is the extreme flexion of head towards the chest that is due to hyperflexion. Moreover if the main reason of spinal cord injury is hyperflexion or hyperextension then it might be the case of spinal cord injury (ElFaramawy, 2009). Client gave appropriate reaction to each question during history taking , this shows that patient has good level of consciousness. As patient vital sign indicate that patient has hypotension, low respiratory rate and decrease in temperature. The one reason for the occurrence of hypotension might be the interference of vagal and symphathetic vascular tone (Karlet 2001). The client symptoms of hypotension, bradycardia indicates that it might be due to neurogenic shock (McLeod, 2004). After the collection of data it is essential to carry out physical assessment by covering all the aspects. Adequate Physical assessment is the basis in determining the injury related to spinal cord (Bono and Lee, 2004). Moreover physical examination especially of neurological system is beneficial in gathering the baseline data. The main section in neurological examination include will be cranial nerves, sensory and motor function and also reflexes (Noah, 2004). Assessment take place by mkaintaing proper interpersonal relationship with patient. While doing inspection assess for the mental condition, intellectual and cognitive response of the patient (Crimlisk, Grande 2004). Assess for the posture of the patient, if posture maintained by patient is decerebrate thenit may indicate trauma in the midbrain. With the help of Glasgow coma scale, level of consciousness should be assessed and also this scale is beneficial in determining the sensory, motor and verbal response. However the response through this scale is not satisfactory in determing the verbal function (Iyer, 2009). Assess for the extremities for spasticity, presence of weakness, flaccidity as these are the significant mark of damage to neurologic system and also assess for the pronator drift which signify hemiparesis (Crimlisk and Grande, 2004). In the patient, level of consciousness through Glasgow coma is assessed and it is found to be 13 which is normal(Iyer, 2009). Inspection of the patient indicates that there is presence of abrasions on the body and he has difficulty in breathing which is indicated from the use of accessory muscles. This data may be crucial in determine that damage occur in between C3 and C5 vertebrae (Walker, 2009). Neck and trunk should be properly palpated as it is helpful in determine any kind of defect in the neurological system. Palpation should be done in an appropriate manner starting from the cranium and regularly descending along the vertebral disc. On palpation of patient there is feeling of rigidity of muscles of cervical and tenderness. So there are chances of cervical injury (Noah, 2004). Diagnosis of spinal cord injury is based not just on history collection and examination infact complete neurological examination and radiographic studies are essential for the confirmation of diagnosis (Berney, et al 2011) . Spinal nerve assessment should be done with the help of hammer that should be strike beneath the knee. Striking causing sending of nerve impulse and thigh muscles contracted due to this flow of nerve impulse. If there is no contraction of muscles then it indicates there is distruption in the pathway and some sensory or motor deficit. In patient there was mild contraction of muscle fibre indicate neurological deficit(Cox, 2008). After that cranial nerves should be assessed by various method such as recognization of smell, assessment of the vision through snellen chart, assess for speech ,facial expression, assess for optic fundi with the help of opthalmoscope, if there is presence of papilloedema it may be the case of increase intracranial pressure. In patient all the cranial nerves are intact and also no papilloedema is present which exclude the diagnosis of increased intracranial pressure (Cox, 2008) . Patient motor and sensory function is determined by the American Spinal Injury Association (AISA) impairment scale. In this scale sensory deficit and motor impairment is recognized with the help of broad categorization. In the patient the strength of elbows, wrist was normal, the stretch of the biceps and triceps was also normal. The response of the patient towards light touch and pin prick was normal up to the inguinal area however due to weakness of lower limbs, the response of lower extremities was not adequate indicate sensory deficit due to spinal cord trauma (Dodwell, 2010) . However the proper alignment of the vertebrae and recognizing of fracture cannot be possible with such scale so for that radiography is essential (Sheerin, 2005). The radiography is beneficial in determine the fracture of thoracic vertebrae, it gives reliable information but it is not useful in case of cervical vertebrae as these vertebrae are to small to be visible appropriately in radiography (Jorge, 2009). Radiography of the patient provide inadequate data as the film was not properly clear. The deep examination of displacement of bone segments and fractures is possible with the help of computed tomography. The CT scan is beneficial in visualization of the image in different cross section (Jorge, 2009). It is possible to get exact information regarding injury of bone with the help of CT scan and radiography films however the injury to the soft tissue on the cord, intervertebral disc then these diagnostic test does not provide complete information regarding soft tissues (Sheerin, 2005). The CT scan of patient exhibit that injury take place at the level of C5 spine. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is helpful in visualization of injury that occurs on soft tissues by providing well clarify image. The further deterioration and injury that occur due to soft tissues is clearly recognized with the help of MRI (Sheerin, 2005). The MRI of patient shows that there is no soft tissue injury. Functional studies such as positron emission tomography, electromyograms are not of use in case of conscious client. They are only essential in patients who are not cooperative (McDonald and Sadowsky, 2002). From the above history collection, physical assessment, various diagnostic test it is clear that client has cervical injury at the level of 5 intercostals vertebra. Spinal cord is the basic part of central nervous system. It consists of thirty one segments. However due to the fusion of coccygeal bones there are 30 segments in vertebral column (Sheerin, 2004). Spinal cord has two region that is cervical and lumber and it is consist of grey matter (Sheerin, 2004). Approximation of 500 to 700 people each year suffers from traumatic spinal cord injury in UK. The main aetiology of spinal cord injury is straight mechanical injury and injury develops due to the compression on cord (Pellatt, 2010). This compression develops from traumatic and non traumatic reason (McDonald Sandusky, 2002). Due to this overstress of cord, intense flexion, extension or rotation develops. If injury develops due to direct force then within little duration discharge of enzymes from cells and vasoactive substance take place. After that neutrophills and macrophages infilterate in that region. The amount of potassium in extracellular fluid boost up and cells become depolarized and result in hypoxic conditions. Where as in case of indirect cause, vascular system compromised causing lack of blood supply in tissues. Which further leads to development of various haemorrhages, due to this haemorrhages the endothelium of blood vessels become disrupted. Further development of aneurysms occurs causing thrombi development in blood vessels. Due to stimulation of vagus nerve, imbalance thermoregulation develops and because of dermal blood vessel dilatation various life threatening sign and symptoms are developed such as neurogenic shock due to vasodilatation (McDonald and Sadowsky, 2002). There are also development of various syndrome such as anterior cord syndrome which occurs due to the injury to the two third of spinal cord in the anterior side, and next is the posterior cord syndrome that occurs due to the injury to the two third of spinal cord in the posterior side (Bailes et al, 200) . Central cord syndrome mainly occupies the cervical part of spinal cord. This syndrome usually influence elderly people and develop cervical spondylosis due to hyperextension. This spondylosis and hyperextension injury together put compression on the anterior and posterior side of cord. Due to which ligament turn towards inner side and put force on the anterior horn cells. This will further causes development of oedema (Bailes et al, 200) . Management of the patient begins from the site of the accident. First priority of the management is the maintenance of the airway, breathing and circulation. Oxygen therapy helps to prevent hypoxic conditions along with that oxygen therapy stop secondary injury that occurs due to the hypoxic conditions. For maintain airway jaw thrust method should be used chin lift method should be avoided as this may deteriorate the neck by extension (Pellatt, 2010). Immediately stabilization of spine must be maintain with the help of stiff cervical colour. The client must be positioned on hard board so as to maintain proper alignment. If there is requirement of intubation then it should be maintained with the help of three people without mobilizing the patient. However immobilization is not as important as the oxygen therapy because death of the patient may take place due to development of encephalopathy in hypoxic condition (Sheerin, 2005). After the confirmation of diagnosis, drug therapy should be started without any delay. Currently this drug therapy is recognized as basic treatment and helps in limiting secondary damage due to hypoxic condition. Steroid treatment must be started immediately. Methylprednisolone is more preferable. The amount needed for this drug is 30mg/kg in 15minutes, subsequently 5.44mg/kg/hr within 24 hours. Steroid treatment helps in improving neurologic deficit through blood flow toward central nervous system. However this drug is helps in only protection of neurological function and also use of elevated amount this drug result in side effects such as gastric bleeding and infection of wound (Weant, 2008). Further supporting, this drug is usually beneficial within 8 hours of injury. Also in the study organized by the researcher in random controlled trial to see the impact of nimodipine and methylprednisolone on patient with spinal cord injury in acute phase is that both the drugs produce side e ffects and these drugs are not of much beneficial (Pointillart, 2000). Also respiratory and cardiovascular function should be adequately maintained in spinal cord injury. Excessive damage if occur by spinal cord injury has remarkable effect on respiratory system. Mostly colloidal solutions maintain pulmonary wedge pressure. (Nockels, 2001) Moreover due to spinal cord injury the tidal volume generated by accessory muscles is not adequate and result in further damage to pulmonary function so there is need of maintainence of respiratory function. Also hypotension may develop in patient as a result of neurogenic shock. Therefore it is essential to check blood pressure and average arterial pressure should be more than 85mmHg. However if blood pressure is too low than it can be managed with the help of vasopressin agent such as dopamine (Sheerin, 2005). Mr. Malik was provided oxygen about 2 litres/min so as to maintain proper perfusion. Pulse oxymetry was continued and part

Deep Sea Fish Adaptions Essay -- Marine Evolution Sea

The discoverer of the titanic, Dr Robert Ballard famously referred to the deep sea as ‘far more alien than going to mars or the moon.’ The deep sea is one of the largest virtually unexplored ecosystems on the planet; it is found at a depth of 1000 fathoms [1] and is subject to adverse changes in temperature, pressure and light penetration amongst other factors. Therefore as expected fish decrease in abundance, and species diversity. This trend is prominent as in order to survive the harsh conditions of the deep sea, fish need a number of specific adaptations. Allowing them to ultimately survive, feed, and reproduce. The deep sea is one of the most hostile environments in the world, which a living organism is subjected to. As you progress from the surface (the epipelagic zone) through to the abyssopelagic zone near the basin of the ocean; the environmental characteristics begin to alter dramatically. Light, pressure, oxygen, temperature and food are abiotic factors that have all led to the fascinating adaptations of deep sea life. Pressure alone increases by 1 atmosphere for each 10m in depth which is an astonishing rate. The deep sea temperature remains between 2-4Â °c, which is just another factor inhabitants must overcome in order to survive, along with a reduced quantity and accessibility of essential factor’s like ;oxygen, food and light[3]. From the surface to its deepest depth the ocean is 11km deep, and with this distance comes a vast change in physiological feature of fish as they try to survive the changing conditions. The bottom of the deep sea exists in darkness as little light penetrates through the surface. Therefore most inhabitants have to rely on their senses to survive. The fish require light to survive; they ... ... any environment but in the deep sea the fish have had to evolve immensely just to survive. Works Cited [1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/habitats/Deep_sea [2] http://www.seasky.org/deep-sea/ocean-layers.html [3] http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Deep [4] http://www.suite101.com/content/adaptations-of-deep-sea-fish-a230044 [] [6] http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bathypelagic_zone?topic=49523 [7] http://www.allthesea.com/Deep-Sea-Fish.html [8] http://www.suite101.com/content/adaptations-of-deep-sea-fish-a230044#ixzz17YRH7Amz [9] Deep sea and extreme shallow water habitats: affinities and adaptions by Franz Uiblein, Jorg Ott and Michael Stacowitsh 1996 [10] http://www.marinebiology.org/fish.htm [11] Adapted from http://www.mbari.org/earth/mar_tech/EITS/ob_deep/od_back.html [12] http://sanctuarysimon.org/regional_sections/deepSea/overview.php

Direct Foreign Investment in Bangladesh

â€Å"Direct Foreign Investment in Bangladesh- Challenges and Prospect† Introduction: This is era of globalization, here all of the country are linked together. Thereby we get different opportunity to be benefited from beyond the country. DFI (direct Foreign investment) is one of them. It is a very important issue for toddy’s government, business people and concerned community of the world. Bangladesh is not far from it . Like any other developing country, the economic development of Bangladesh is also significantly depend on foreign direct investment.Bangladesh government and business community of Bangladesh is concerned enough to attract increasing number of DFI in Bangladesh. To draw the attention of foreign investor and make them interested to do invest in Bangladesh, government take lot of initiatives, like branding the Bangladesh, giving incentives on DFI, improving the infrastructure etc. However, this is fact too that, still we have some challenges and difficult ies to get satisfactory amount of direct foreign investment. In this report, we are covering the most lucrative industry in Bangladesh.It is the garment industry of Bangladesh, which has been the key division and main sources of foreign currency of Bangladesh for a very long time. Objective of the study: Primary Objective †¢To know the DFI situation in Bangladesh and its future. Secondary objective †¢To Know the Factors affecting DFI in Bangladesh †¢To evaluate the Garment industry in Bangladesh from the perspective of current DFI situation in Bangladesh, Government incentives, socio-political situation and other financial facilities, entry-exit barriers etc. †¢To know the challenges currently faced by the existing foreign investors in the industry. In addition, to give our opinion about the feasibility of the industry to attract DFI in Bangladesh. Methodology: To make this term paper we mainly give emphasize on secondary sources of data. We go through different organization’s website like, Bangladesh Bank, Bangladesh Board of Investment etc to collect the necessary information. Moreover, we take some knowledge from daily newspaper and television talk shows. Apart from these, we use our textbook and class lecture as a secondary source of information. http://www. orion-group. net/career. php http://banglar-jobs. blogspot. com/2010/10/ministry-of-health-and-family-welfare. html Related article: Padma Bridge

Future Role of Hospitals Essay Example

Future Role of Hospitals Essay Example Future Role of Hospitals Essay Future Role of Hospitals Essay Universal health care is on the way for all Americans. President Obamas Health Care Reform will mandate that all Americans have medical insurance by 2014. (Jackson Nolen, 2010) Either the employers will provide the medical insurance or the individual will have to purchased the medical insurance themselves. Who is responsible for purchasing the medical insurance depends on several factors but those details are not the scope of this paper. The key point of the health care reform law is that every American will be mandated to have medical insurance. Universal health care coverage will have a major impact on all aspects of health care. We will focus on the impact of universal health care on hospitals. There is no doubt, that all hospitals will have to make major changes in their day to day operations. As the new law takes effect, the hospitals will have to evolve to meet the new requirements. A transformation will need to take place in order to adjust to the new volume of patients that can be expected after the mandate is put in place. The role the hospitals will play in the future will depend on many different factors. : We will investigate these evolving roles as we examine what the future role of hospitals will be in America. Today there are 5,815 registered hospitals in the United States. Of the 5,815 registered hospitals, 5,010 are community based hospitals. There are 2,923 Not-for-Profit community hospitals, 982 For-Profit community hospitals and 1,105 state and local government community hospitals. The remainder of the hospitals are comprised of Federal Government hospitals, Nonfederal Psychiatric Hospitals, Nonfederal Long Term Care Hospitals and a number of Hospital Units of Institutions. (Fast Facts, 2010) Each year over 35 million people are admitted to the hospital. More than 118 million people are treated in the emergency department and 481 million people are treated as outpatients. Hospitals also deliver over 4 million babies each year. In 2006, hospitals provided care to people in need at a cost of over $31 billion of care for which no payment was received. (Hospital Facts, 2008) The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) require all hospitals to screen each patient that comes through the Emergency Department. (Emtala. com, n. d.) If an emergent condition is found, they must stabilize the patient. Many times these emergent patients do not have insurance or a means to pay for their care. In the future, hospitals will be asked to do more while keeping cost down. A major role hospitals will have to play in the future is that of cost containment. Today, one third of hospitals lose money on operations. They have a meager operating margin of only 4% on average. It will be very difficult for many hospitals to keep their doors open in the future if they continue to lose money. Hit the hardest are the rural hospitals. It has become more and more difficult for rural hospitals to stay in business. During the decade of the 1990s, 186 hospitals closed their doors and went out of business. (Cracks in the Foundation, 2002) One major reason hospitals have a hard time with their operating cost is because of payment shortfalls from Medicare and Medicaid. Roughly 54% of gross revenues come from the charges to Medicare and Medicaid. In 2003, Medicare accounted for 40. 4% percent of the hospitals gross revenues and Medicaid accounted for 14. 4% of the hospitals gross revenues. The hospitals financial performance is based on these government payments because they cover the majority of the patients seen. In fact, the majority of hospitals lose money in treating Medicare and Medicaid patients. In 2003, 59% of the hospitals were losing money treating Medicare patients and 61% of the hospitals were losing money treating Medicaid patients. (Fragile State of Hospitals, n. d. ). This is important information because in the future, hospitals will not only have to manage cost of treating Medicare and Medicaid patients but also be responsible for managing the cost of treating  patients under the new universal health care coverage. In order for the hospitals to maintain their doors open, they will have to do better at collecting payments of the newly insured patients. A concern hospitals will have to contend with is the reality that not all individuals will opt to buy into a universal health care plan. This individuals may opt to pay the small penalty of not carrying insurance. Not buying medical insurance will be an option for some individuals. (Jackson Nolen, 2010) This will present a problem to the hospitals. A lot of these patients bills will go on the books as bad debt. With hospitals already losing money by treating Medicare and Medicaid patients, they will not be able to tolerate additional loses in operating cost by treating non-insured patients. Hospitals make enormous economic contributions to our society. Hospital care is the largest component of the health care sector and represented 16. 2 percent of the Gross Domestic Product. The hospital care sector accounted for $2. 3 Trillion of which hospitals accounted for $718 billion of that total. In addition, community hospitals created over $2 trillion of economic activity. The goods and services hospitals purchase from other businesses create additional economic value for the community. With these ripple effects included, each hospital job supports about two more jobs and every dollar spent by a hospital supports roughly $2. 30 of additional business activity. (Economic Contribution of Hospitals, 2010) Hospitals play a major role today and in the future in the creation of jobs for both themselves and for the surrounding communities. In 2008, hospitals employed over 5. 3 million people and were the second largest source of private sector jobs. Hospitals support nearly one of 9 jobs in the U. S. Nursing jobs are the foundation of every hospitals. They must have enough nursing staff to take care of the patients that are admitted on a daily basis. In the future hospitals will have to partner with universities and technical and vocational schools that produce the supply of nurses. Nurses of different skill levels will be needed to take care of the hospitalized patients. The hospital will need Register Nurses (RNs), Licensed Vocational Nurses (LVNs), Certified Nursing Assistants (CNAs), and other specialized medical technicians. Most important are the RNs. Depending on the services offered by the hospitals, RNs with various skills sets will be required. Some hospitals will require Critical Care RNs, Emergency Care RNs, Pediatric Care RNs, etc. As more and more hospital services are being utilized, the number of RNs required will increase. For the past decade, the demand of RNs has increase but the supply has decreased. It is estimated that there will be a shortage of 800,000 RNs by the year 2020. (Fragile State of Hospital Finances, n. d. ) In the future, the demand for hospital services will continue to increase. Breakthroughs in medicine has contributed to the increase in the average life of expectancy. Medical advances have greatly improved the health and longevity of Americans. A person born in 2000 can expect to live 3. 3 years longer than a person born in 1980. New treatments have led to sharp reductions in mortality for heart disease, cancer, stroke and many other diseases. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003) The increase in the growth of the population combined with the increased number of people aged over 65 will create a demand for more hospital services. A sharp increase in the population aged 65 and over is expected to increase because of the large number of Baby Boomers reaching this milestone. In coming decades, the sheer number of aging baby boomers will swell the number of elderly with disabilities and the need for services. (Walker, 2002) There were 34. 8 million people aged 65 or older in 2000 which accounted for 12. 7 percent of the countrys total population. It is estimated, that by 2020, the percentage of Americans age 65 or older will reach 16. 5 percent. By 2020, one in six Americans will be 65 years old or older representing close to 20 million people. The General Accounting Office estimates that by 2040, the number of people aged 85 years and older will triple and reach 14 million. (Walker, 2002) Hospitals in the future will need to plan to for the care of advanced age patients. This age group tends to use more resources and have longer lengths of stay. Often times, they require specialty care and more nursing care. These patients also tend to be more critically ill with several co-morbid chronic conditions. Hospitals will need an infrastructure capable of handling an increase in these types of patients. Critical Care beds will need to be increased and the nursing staff will need to be trained to care for these complicated patients. In addition to the elderly, people 65 and older, the hospitals will play a vital role in taking care of a new group of patients, the obese. Obesity has become a major problem in the United States. Obesity in America has dramatically increased in recent years and become an urgent health concern. Approximately 22 percent of adult Americans are obese defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more. Among children, 13 percent are considered overweight defined as having a BMI of 25 or more. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003) This is a great concern for hospitals. There is a strong correlation between obesity and numerous chronic medical conditions. If the prevalence of obesity continues, the hospitals in the future can expect to treat a larger amount of obese patients with multiple chronic condition. Obese people tend to have a higher risk of hypertension, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, and various forms of cancer. Overweight and obesity, and their associated health problems, have a considerable economic impact on hospitals and the health care system. An estimated $177 billion is spent annually as a result of overweight and obesity. Recent estimates suggest that obesity accounts for about 5. 7 percent of total U. S. direct health care costs, excluding costs related to increased mortality among obese and overweight individuals. Recent research also suggests that compared to patients who are obese, patients with a BMI of 20-24. 9 have approximately 51 percent lower prescription drug costs, 28 percent lower hospital inpatient costs, and 12 percent lower hospital outpatient costs. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003) If these trends continue, the hospitals will have to make more accommodations for the obese patients. The hospitals will not only have to invest more on nursing care for these patients but always make some capital investments. The hospital would require wheel chairs large enough to handle the size and weight of these patients. Larger operating tables would be required. Special surgical equipment would be needed. Extra large beds for the inpatient rooms would have to be available. These are some of the considerations hospitals will have to make in the future role of obese patient care. In recent years, hospitals have been treating more and more sicker patients than in the past. This trend is expected to increase as the population ages and as the number of elderly increases. The complexity and acuity of these patients is due to the greater presence of complex co-morbidities. These acutely ill patients utilize a lot more hospital resources. Treating these patients creates a financial burden for the hospital because in most cases the re-imbursements are less than the cost of the patient care. Between 2000-2002, hospitals saw a 15 percent rise in extremely ill patients that were treated in their facility. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003). In the future, hospitals will have to adjust to an increase in the demand of hospital utilization. Hospitals are already seeing an increase in outpatient and inpatient visits today and they can expect it to increase in the future as more and more people will demand the services of the hospital. It is already anticipated that more Americans will use the hospital services as universal health care plans are initiated. Millions of Americans who otherwise would not go to the hospital will now have medical and hospital insurance. These people would typically avoid a trip to the hospital because of the exurbanite out of pocket cost. These people will demand more hospital services and will drive over all hospitalization up. A concern hospitals will have is the over utilization of the Emergency Department (ED). Americans have become accustomed to the availability of 24-hour care. Approximately a third of hospital care begins in the ED. Hospitals have seen a 25 percent increase in ED volume over the past decade. In 2004, there were 112. 6 million ED visits. The majority of these visits required immediate care and more than half of the ED care takes place outside of normal business hours. (Prepare to Care, n. d. ). Hospitals today and in the future need to provide an extensive array of resource in order to meet the many different and often unpredictable needs of emergency care for the patients. Patient volume can vary dramatically; therefore, hospitals must have medical staff, both physicians and nurses, on standby in order to meet the demand of patient volume. In addition, hospitals providing 24/7 emergency care have to have other support staffing available to support the ED. Hospital EDs require services from the laboratory, radiology, pharmacy, surgical services, general and intensive care units, labor and delivery, plus on-call physicians. It is not uncommon for hospital EDs to see more than 1,500 unique patient conditions. A problem most hospitals face is the use of the ED as a patients safety net. Often lacking a medical home, Medicaid beneficiaries and people without health care coverage together, 103 million individuals disproportionately look to the hospital ED as their access point for care. (Prepare to Care, n. d. ) Acting as the safety net for these patients is very costly to hospitals. As discussed earlier, most hospitals lose money taking care of Medicaid patients. Also, most uninsured patients rarely have the means to pay for their ED visit. This problem continues to persist as evident by the 22 percent increase in ED utilization by Medicaid and uninsured patients during the years of 1998-2003. A current problem and a problem that will have to be addressed in the future by hospitals is the care of the behaviorally ill. Declining reimbursements from payers and the erosion of public support have resulted in reductions and/or eliminations of inpatient psychiatric units and/or beds in hospitals as well as in private, free-standing and state behavioral health facilities. Many outpatient centers also have closed and some behavioral health specialist are limiting their practices to fee-for-service patients only. As a result, individuals suffering from mental health and substance abuse (MHSA) conditions increasingly turn to EDs for care. (Prepare to Care, n. d. ) With limited resources and a thin profit margin, most hospitals will continue to lack the ability to take care of this patient population. Hospitals have a challenge today and they will be challenged in the future when it comes to providing 24/7 emergency care. A concern hospitals will have is covering the cost of the uninsured. Even as the new insurance mandate is implemented, there will still be people who will risk not having coverage and opt to pay the penalty for not having an insurance premium. The hospitals also take a risk in absorbing the cost of these individuals without the means of paying for their services. The majority of hospitals already lose money on the Medicaid and Medicare patients, they cannot afford to add another category of non-paying patients. The future role of hospitals will definitely involve new technology and medical advances. The government has already mandated that every provider will transition to electronic medical records by the year 2014. Information technology (IT) has been identified as an essential tool in improving the quality of clinical care and reducing health care costs. Hospitals and health systems currently leading the field in IT adoption report that they generally begin by improving the safety of medication administration, both by automating the ordering process and matching medications electronically to patients at the time of administration. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003) The one drawback to IT is the cost of implementation. Over the next few years all medical records will be transitioned into electronic medical records. The hospitals will be the leaders in the medical community in the adoption of the new requirements. They will play a vital role in recruiting the physicians into adopting the use of electronic medical records. Hospitals will also take the lead in the interoperability between hospital electronic medical records and physician electronic medical records. New biomedical and technology advancements has vastly improve the quality of life of people and has extended the life expectancy. Because of the advancements of less invasive procedures, patient demand has increased. Advancement in imaging has been a huge breakthrough in patient care. Newer high tech imaging devices such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) functional imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) has lead to early detection of diseases and early treatment. Research indicates advances in medical care are contributing to longer, healthier lives. Disability and mortality rates have consistently declined since the 1970s. (Lutz Rodgers, 2003). The downside to all the advancements in health care is the cost. As with all health care, paying for the new technologies and advancements will be the major obstacle. The majority of hospitals today are losing money year over year. In the future, hospitals will have to develop more cost effective ways to implement new medical advancements and field new technology. One thing is for sure, hospitals will play a major role in health care in the future. Hospitals are the foundation of this countrys health care system. They are major contributors to the economy of the U. S. Hospitals will always play a lead in the care of Americans. Reference Page Jackson, Jill and Nolen, John. Health Care Reform Bill Summary: A Look At Whats in the Bill. (2010, March 23). Retrieved from CBSNews. com. cbsnews. com/8301- 503544_162-20000846-503544. html Fast Facts on U. S. Hospitals. (2010, June 24). Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/fast-facts. html Hospital Facts to Know. (2008, March). Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/studies. html Frequently Asked Questions About the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA). (no date). Retrieved from Emtala. com. emtala. com/faq. htm Cracks in the Foundation: Averting a Crisis in Americas Hospitals. (2002, August). Retrieved from AHA. Com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and- Studies/studies. html The Fragile State of Hospital Finances. (no date). Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/studies. html The Economic Contribution of Hospitals. (2010). Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/studies. html Lutz, Sandy and Rodgers, Jack. Cost of Caring: Key Drivers of Growth in Spending on  Hospital Care. (2003, February 19) Retrieved from Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/studies. html Walker, David M. Long-Term Care: Aging Baby Boom Generation Will Increase Demand and Burden on Federal and State Budgets. (2002, March 21). Retrieved from GAO. gov. gao. gov/new. items/d10468sp. pdf Prepared to Care: the 24/7 Role of Americas Full-Service Hospitals. (no date). Retrieved from AHA. com. aha. org/aha/resource-center/Statistics-and-Studies/studies. html Rural Hospital Closures 1990-1999.

Strategic Management of Organizations

Strategic Management of Organizations Organizational structure Structure generally means the framework on which an organization is built and functions that keep the organization going. Organizational structure is the operating guideline that informs the members or workers how the organization works.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Management of Organizations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Structure explains the way members are received, how leaders are chosen, and the process of decision-making. Organizational structure explains the way an organization puts workers and jobs for effective work performance and goal realization (Baligh, 2005). Channel of communication depends on the size of the organization; small organizations have short channels of communication because the top manager can reach the lowest ranked employee easily. On the other hand, large organizations have long channels of communication because they contain many departments an d functions. From these decisions, an organizational structure is established. Organizational structure may be centralized or decentralized. In centralized structure, the top management is vested with the most of decision-making and total control over the organization’s departments, subdivisions, and divisions. In decentralized organizational structure, power and authority over control and decisions making is evenly distributed and the independence between departments and divisions is different (Baligh, 2005). In an organization, regardless of its size, employees’ tasks and complexity is defined by what function it partakes, its supervisors, and managers. Organizations use organizational charts to simplify relationship between its departments and positions and their interdependence. The finest organizational structure designed by any organization relies on many factors such as its work, revenue, number of employees, geographic distribution of its amenities, and the col lection of its trading. Organizational structures have been in existence since the ancient past, they have evolved to date because of their needs and complexities in the current organization.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More How Organizational Structure Implement Organizations Strategy Organizational strategy is the tactic, which an organization uses to meet its future goals, mission, vision, and targets. An organization must compare its present state to the projected future state then look at the difference and plan on how to cover the difference through changing its working tactics. There are several organizational structures, which include pre-bureaucratic structures, bureaucratic structures, post bureaucratic structures, functional structures, divisional structures, and matrix structures. Organization strategy includes sequence of authority, span of organizing, departmentalization, circulation of authority, and organization’s height. These elements are integrated within an organization to give out the desired outcome in type of the organization and the management required (Baligh, 2005). The Basic Building Blocks of Organizational Structure An organization needs to be built on several organizational blocks to ensure and strengthen its survival. These blocks help in making sure that the organization is focused in its target of meeting its future goals. These blocks include: Hierarchy Hierarchy or layers of organization is the primary most component of the organizational structure, individuals’ need to have people above them to obey, respect, consult, and structure the way of achieving a target. Organization’s layer means the length of the line of communication, that is the procedure followed before the information from service man reaches the department manager. Hierarchy flow of information is mostly exercised in the b ureaucratic organizations where the individual must report directly to his or her immediate supervisor. Hierarchy act as a major organizational block because it determines each employee’s authority and responsibility in the organization. Hierarchy makes organization to be organized because every employee is aware of his or her duties (Tannenbaum, 2006). Formalization Formalization is another major form of an organization building block. Through formalization, an organization decisions, orders, and standards are passed to all employees. Formalization is closely attached to both leadership and hierarchy. A number of organizations prefer tight bureaucratic system of administration because these systems establish strict orders and methods in the organization.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Management of Organizations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bureaucratic systems call for rigid communication cha nnels. On the other hand, some other organizations allow for non-bureaucratic procedures, which allow for collaborative decisions making, employees dissent, and alternative ideas from employees. These kinds of organizations allow for flexible decision-making and channels of communication (Swayne, Duncan Ginter, 2008). Divisions Division is a basic building block for organization structure. Divisions depend on the size of the organization; small organizations can survive on one division in charge of all the operations because their operations are not complicated. On the other hand, all organization divide their operations according to the departments available such as; information technology department, accounting department, procurement department, transport department, marketing department, human resource department among others are created according to the organizations need. Other organizations divide the organization according to the production need, these may include vacuum cl eaners division, packaging division, processing division among others. This makes it easy for each division to be able to identify its authorities and responsibilities with ease and controlling confusion in the lines of duty (Philips Gully, 2012). Temporary Constructs Temporary constructs are basic building blocks in that they are frequently used by organizations to resolve issues arising from the operations and employees. Most of organizations will assign or create groups for a specified period to handle a problem arising in the organization or take care of a new project, the group may be selected internally or externally. Most organization prefers dedicated troubleshooters since they are good in getting a solution and working on an issue. Organizations are opposed to this approach though it saves time in handling a certain project (Philips Gully, 2012). Advantages and Disadvantages of each of the Building Blocks of Organizational Structure Hierarchy is advantageous in that those who are in the top positions enjoy a lot of privileges. Those at the top are vested with complex decision-making consequently making it easy for an organization to handle its complexities.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hierarchy is disadvantageous in that those at the lowest positions feel oppressed at some time because they enjoy no privileges, its procedural for decisions to get to the bottom level and there is limited interaction between the top management and the bottom workers so their problems are less heard. Formalization of an organization has the following advantages: it makes the goals of the organization to be clearly defined, it makes the business become legal entity, and it clarifies the organization’s objectives. The disadvantages include: formalization creates rigidity, long long-term planning is discouraged, and reduces creativity among employees. Organization division is advantageous in that it increases specialization and as a result, quality products and services are produced, division allows an organization form the culture of spirit de corps leading to higher production. Division disadvantages include politics between the divisions may arise, this may reduce production because of the competition between the divisions and divisions may undermine each other leading to inter division organization conflicts (Swayne, Duncan Ginter, 2008). References Baligh, H. H. (2005). Organization Structures: Theory and Design, Analysis and Prescription. New York: N.Y.: Springer. Philips, J., Gully, S. M. (2012). Organizational behavior : Tools for success. Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning. Swayne, L. E., Duncan, J. W., Ginter, P. M. (2008). Strategic Management of Health Care Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Pulishers. Tannenbaum, A. S. (2006). Heirarchy in organizations: An international comparison. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Free Essays on Medea, The Tragic Hero

Medea: the Tragic Hero Aristotle’s tragic hero is defined in Poetics and consists of five essential characteristics. Although some tragedies did not follow Aristotle’s model, the list of characteristics that Aristotle describes became a prototype and outline for many Greek tragedy writers. Euripedes wrote over one hundred tragedies and many times he followed Aristotle’s definition. Medea is unique in that it consists of many of Aristotle’s ideas as well as some that Euripedes implemented himself. Aristotle states that a tragic hero must be noble, which means that the hero must be of high social class possessing moral qualities as well as unique abilities. Medea was a princess of Colchis and displayed a vast knowledge of enchantments, medicine, and sorcery. Medea’s moral qualities were removed only after her husband Jason had abandoned her and their two children and began courting the daughter of King Kreon of Corinth. The fading of Medea’s moral values was directly related to her hamartia, the second characteristic of Aristotle’s tragic hero. Hamartia is a flaw or weakness in the hero and Medea’s was her immense anger and wrath towards everyone around her, including herself, once she learned of Jason’s betrayal. In her wrath she deceived Jason by gaining his confidence again only to bestow him gifts of malice such as a poisoned wedding gown that kills Kreon’s daughter, as well as Kreon himself who is so heartbroken that he embraces his dead princess and absorbs the poison also. Included in her plot for vengeance was the murder of her own two children. The satisfaction of the pain she caused Jason by doing this far outweighed her own devastation. Medea’s slaying of her own children is part of the third characteristic of Aristotle’s tragic hero. Her hubris, excessive pride, and desire for revenge led Medea to the loss of her children. Prior to this act she believes that killing them will hurt Jas... Free Essays on Medea, The Tragic Hero Free Essays on Medea, The Tragic Hero Medea: the Tragic Hero Aristotle’s tragic hero is defined in Poetics and consists of five essential characteristics. Although some tragedies did not follow Aristotle’s model, the list of characteristics that Aristotle describes became a prototype and outline for many Greek tragedy writers. Euripedes wrote over one hundred tragedies and many times he followed Aristotle’s definition. Medea is unique in that it consists of many of Aristotle’s ideas as well as some that Euripedes implemented himself. Aristotle states that a tragic hero must be noble, which means that the hero must be of high social class possessing moral qualities as well as unique abilities. Medea was a princess of Colchis and displayed a vast knowledge of enchantments, medicine, and sorcery. Medea’s moral qualities were removed only after her husband Jason had abandoned her and their two children and began courting the daughter of King Kreon of Corinth. The fading of Medea’s moral values was directly related to her hamartia, the second characteristic of Aristotle’s tragic hero. Hamartia is a flaw or weakness in the hero and Medea’s was her immense anger and wrath towards everyone around her, including herself, once she learned of Jason’s betrayal. In her wrath she deceived Jason by gaining his confidence again only to bestow him gifts of malice such as a poisoned wedding gown that kills Kreon’s daughter, as well as Kreon himself who is so heartbroken that he embraces his dead princess and absorbs the poison also. Included in her plot for vengeance was the murder of her own two children. The satisfaction of the pain she caused Jason by doing this far outweighed her own devastation. Medea’s slaying of her own children is part of the third characteristic of Aristotle’s tragic hero. Her hubris, excessive pride, and desire for revenge led Medea to the loss of her children. Prior to this act she believes that killing them will hurt Jas...

Rentier state theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Rentier state theory - Essay Example Monopolies- overreliance on external rent always comes at a cost. The fact that these parties involved may have in abundance the resources they engage in this kind of rent acquisition in itself may lead to adverse influence on the business behavior. This may lead to monopolization of the market since these resources are highly valued. The aspect of monopoly sets in when a nation enters a trade pact with your nation thus wanting to dictate the terms of trade. They may opt to be the only supplier of the resource thus monopolizing the economy. Trading restrictions- since the states involved are rich in certain highly valuable resources, they may decide to impose the terms of trade and even putting up some restriction measures to ensure they remain dominant. They restrict a party involved from engaging commercially with other nations. Solicitation of aids- States involved in rentierism may engage in a mutually benefiting way. They may engage in giving aids in order to get some political influence in that particular region or over the nation. This is majorly common with the United States who subsidizes project of other nations in exchange for influence. This may impact the business behavior by influencing its

Theory of Coping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Theory of Coping - Essay Example These models include the Resiliency Model of Family Stress, Adjustment and Adaptation, the Developmental Health Model, the Framework of Systemic Organization, the Roy Adaptation Model, and the Neuman Systems Model. While these have been successful in aiding family members through the coping process, they do not focus specifically or solely on the coping processes utilized by patients in intensive care and their relatives. An evidence-based theoretical model is a necessary continuation of nursing research. A further understanding of the coping methods that relatives utilize during the acute stages of the patient's illness may allow health care professionals to predict and prevent difficulties during the recovery period. Johansson et al. (2006) posited that this theoretical coping model must contain both the ICU-stay and home recovery in order to facilitate the distinction of possible maladaptive coping methods and to assist in the choice of effective nursing interventions. To follow is a discussion and analysis of the theory formulated by Johansson et al. (2006) as well as a discussion regarding the relevancy and application of this theory. In their 2006 study, Johansson et al. ... ought to develop a theoretical model of the coping methods of family members during the patient's ICU stay and the following recovery process by performing an analysis of concepts that were elicited from two empirically based, theoretical studies. The researchers defined a relative as a close acquaintance or friend. The theoretical model of the relative's coping methods was inductively derived during the time between 2004-2005 and was based on theories that were produced from the aforementioned empirical studies. A university ethics committee then approved these studies (Johansson et al., 2006). The researchers defined inclusion criterion as adult relatives of adult patients that had been on mechanical ventilation in an ICU (Johansson et al., 2006). In order to refine and combine multiple coping concepts from both the ICU-stay and the recovery period in a unified theoretical coping model, the researchers used simultaneous concept analysis that was in accordance with previous studies. Johansson et al. (2006) utilized the simultaneous concept analysis in order to explain all concepts simultaneously providing definitions that were mutually exclusive of one another while focusing on dynamics of their interrelationships and overall characteristics. The researchers utilized several procedures in order to achieve their goals. First, they developed a consensus group that included individuals that could contribute a particular proficiency and were willing to compromise and aid in the creation of a theoretical coping model (Johansson et al., 2006). The researchers then developed the concept clarification strategy that involved choosing which particular concept clarification method should be utilized regarding the concepts of coping that were selected from the two

Interior Design Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Interior Design - Research Proposal Example Introduction Environment Design is basically a learning milieu where design graduates are encouraged to use their innovative and inventive talent in the management and marketing of design in order to pursue their careers in the design industry. â€Å"Lighting is a science and an art†, assert Steffy (2002:1). There have been numerous developments in lighting design recently which make it an interesting topic of research. Professional lighting designers are required today since they are being offered various job opportunities in the lighting industry. There are a number of lighting design consultancies which are offering outstanding lighting schemes to its consumers and organizations like landmark hotels, restaurants, shopping spas, exhibitions, yachts, house gardens, etc. Steffy (2002:1) affirms that nearly $10 billion worth lighting hardware is sold in the United States every year. The research will focus on questions like: How rapid has the lighting design industry flourished during the last decade? Which areas of lighting design are more in demand? What particular kinds of designs are more in demand from consumers’ perspectives? What benefits has it offered to different international lighting design companies? Is the trend increasing, decreasing or is consistent? What are the hard and soft issues that arise in different lighting fields such as in interiors, exhibitions, theatre, and garden projects? What are the costs? How does lighting weigh on the companies’ budget? These issues have inspired me to conduct a research about lighting design in today’s design industry. Literature Review Sources. Some sources that are going to be helpful in the research are: Karlen, M, & Benya, J 2004, Lighting Design Basics, illustrated edn., John Wiley and sons, USA. (This book is helpful in understanding the basic science that is involved in lighting design. It is a good study guide for beginners helping them understand through concise and visual lesson format.) Tregenza, P, & Loe, D, The Design of Lighting, illustrated edn., Taylor & Francis, USA. (This book has been written for practicing designers and thus will be a helpful guide in understand what issues practicing lighting designer face. Technicalities regarding lighting and color theories and other concepts have been discussed in detail.) Past Research Papers. Some past research that will be helpful is: Dorsey, J, Arvo, J, & Greenberg, D 1995, ‘Interactive design of complex time dependent lighting’, Computer Graphics and Applications, vol. 15, no, 2, pp. 26-36. (Researchers conducted a research about lighting design in theatrical productions. They have discussed some specific techniques that help in lighting regardless of complexities of scene and design. This research will prove helpful in understanding lighting concepts in theatres.) Shacked, R, & Lischinski, D 2002, ‘Automatic lighting design using a perceptual quality metric’, Computer Gra phics Forum, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 215-227. (This presents a new approach for the rendering of 3D objects. This approach serves as an effective lighting design tool. This research will prove to be helpful in understanding lighting design tools and their working.) Methodology I plan to visit different lighting design companies to locate answers to my research questions. I plan to conduct structured personal

Lamprey Inc Remains Viable as a Business Enterprise Essay

Lamprey Inc Remains Viable as a Business Enterprise - Essay Example This huge disparity in salary already manifested in the uncompetitive pricing of Lamprey Inc.’s products compared to its competitors. Competitors were also dangerously close to overtaking Lamprey Inc. in terms of product quality. Lamprey Inc. has to lower its cost, to remain viable as a business enterprise. If it will continue to operate with the same cost in the present state of competition, it will not long be long before it will fold. Looking at the numbers, moving the plant to Mexico seems to be the easiest solution considering the wage disparity of $16 per hour in Oconomo plant and $1.60 per hour in Mexico translating to a $ 15 million savings per year. But limiting the consideration of the decision to lowering wages can be a very simple solution to the problem. The real issue of the Oconomo plant is the high operational cost and wage is only one of its many components. In addition, the level of the plant’s productivity may be also an issue for it might be producing less at the same cost. If the management and the employees can find ways to lower the cost and increase productivity that will make the company’s return higher and enable it to keep a savings equivalent to moving the plant to Mexico, then it should be explored. As an experienced manager, Jim Malesckowski felt it in his gut that the decision felt wrong although it sounds right. Strictly looking at the disparity of the wages may seem to be right but he knew that as long as there is a chance that the cost will be lowered, the plant should be saved. Jim has to engage the employees through its union in the solving the problem of lowering the cost and enhancing productivity. He has to be forthright with the employees that both of them want the same thing, to keep the plant at Oconomo without cutting the wages.   So they have to solve the problem of competition which undermines their mutual interest in keeping the plant.  

Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes - Essay Example This essay researches various medical studies and provides information on connections between obesity and second type diabetes in the UK. Although there is subjectivity about the exact causes of diabetes, yet there are certain factors that increase an individual’s tendency to develop different kinds of diabetes. This particularly includes being obese or overweight for the type 2 diabetes. This essay coveres 3 most commonly used theories on the topic and also suggests on "How can the Risk of Diabetes Type 2 be Reduced". The first theory, that is described in this essay is based on the assumption that metabolism is subject to great changes because of being overweight because more fat molecules are released into the blood. When these fat molecules find their way to the cells which react to insulin, fat cells interfere with the functioning of these cells and reduce their ability to respond to insulin. The second theory, that is used states that fat in the abdomen releases pro-inflammatory chemicals. The condition of having excess abdominal fat is called as abdominal obesity, and it is an especially high-risk obesity form. It is believed by the scientists that in prediabetes, the level of fatty acids in the blood increases. The third theory holds that obesity can lead to prediabetes. It is believed by the scientists that in prediabetes, the level of fatty acids in the blood increases. In conclusion to these theories in the essay, good news is that an individual’s tendency of developing type 2 diabetes can be reduced by losing weight.

Outline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 60

Outline - Essay Example The voice technology, especially the use of polygraphs are commonly made for interrogation with different questions that detects one is telling the truth or a lie and manipulation of voice and how the person speaks tells more. The reason they are still considered is because there are less than 5% of ‘good people at detecting lies’ are easily deceived and most out of empathy or emotions may not distinguish truth from lies (Roth, Williams, Phifer, & Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment, Inc, 2010). Voice technology through use of lie detectors may be of use in enforcing the law by distinguishing those telling the truth from lies. However, the limitations of trained liars and some honest, people may fail to be recognized leading to injustice. It is not always favorable to use them. In the last few decades, technology/scientific development has taken place in many areas and this affects us on the both a personal level and within our professions. Lie detection, a form of voice technology has been growing widespread and available, especially in law courts to investigate the truth. The good judgments made are helpful to individuals as well as the society while the negative effects affect them as well and may hinder justice. Brett,  A.  S., Phillips,  M., & Beary,  J.  F. (1986, March 8). Predictive Power of the Polygraph: Can the "Lie Detector" Really Detect Liars?, by Allan S. Brett, Michael Phillips, John F. Beary. Retrieved from http://www.american-buddha.com/art.predictivepowerpolygraphbeary.htm Brown,  T.  E., Senter,  S.  M., Ryan,  A.  H., & DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE POLYGRAPH INST FORT JACKSON SC. (2003). Ability of the Vericator to Detect Smugglers at a Mock Security Checkpoint. Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information

Lamprey Inc Remains Viable as a Business Enterprise Essay

Lamprey Inc Remains Viable as a Business Enterprise - Essay Example This huge disparity in salary already manifested in the uncompetitive pricing of Lamprey Inc.’s products compared to its competitors. Competitors were also dangerously close to overtaking Lamprey Inc. in terms of product quality. Lamprey Inc. has to lower its cost, to remain viable as a business enterprise. If it will continue to operate with the same cost in the present state of competition, it will not long be long before it will fold. Looking at the numbers, moving the plant to Mexico seems to be the easiest solution considering the wage disparity of $16 per hour in Oconomo plant and $1.60 per hour in Mexico translating to a $ 15 million savings per year. But limiting the consideration of the decision to lowering wages can be a very simple solution to the problem. The real issue of the Oconomo plant is the high operational cost and wage is only one of its many components. In addition, the level of the plant’s productivity may be also an issue for it might be producing less at the same cost. If the management and the employees can find ways to lower the cost and increase productivity that will make the company’s return higher and enable it to keep a savings equivalent to moving the plant to Mexico, then it should be explored. As an experienced manager, Jim Malesckowski felt it in his gut that the decision felt wrong although it sounds right. Strictly looking at the disparity of the wages may seem to be right but he knew that as long as there is a chance that the cost will be lowered, the plant should be saved. Jim has to engage the employees through its union in the solving the problem of lowering the cost and enhancing productivity. He has to be forthright with the employees that both of them want the same thing, to keep the plant at Oconomo without cutting the wages.   So they have to solve the problem of competition which undermines their mutual interest in keeping the plant.  

Outline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 60

Outline - Essay Example The voice technology, especially the use of polygraphs are commonly made for interrogation with different questions that detects one is telling the truth or a lie and manipulation of voice and how the person speaks tells more. The reason they are still considered is because there are less than 5% of ‘good people at detecting lies’ are easily deceived and most out of empathy or emotions may not distinguish truth from lies (Roth, Williams, Phifer, & Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment, Inc, 2010). Voice technology through use of lie detectors may be of use in enforcing the law by distinguishing those telling the truth from lies. However, the limitations of trained liars and some honest, people may fail to be recognized leading to injustice. It is not always favorable to use them. In the last few decades, technology/scientific development has taken place in many areas and this affects us on the both a personal level and within our professions. Lie detection, a form of voice technology has been growing widespread and available, especially in law courts to investigate the truth. The good judgments made are helpful to individuals as well as the society while the negative effects affect them as well and may hinder justice. Brett,  A.  S., Phillips,  M., & Beary,  J.  F. (1986, March 8). Predictive Power of the Polygraph: Can the "Lie Detector" Really Detect Liars?, by Allan S. Brett, Michael Phillips, John F. Beary. Retrieved from http://www.american-buddha.com/art.predictivepowerpolygraphbeary.htm Brown,  T.  E., Senter,  S.  M., Ryan,  A.  H., & DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE POLYGRAPH INST FORT JACKSON SC. (2003). Ability of the Vericator to Detect Smugglers at a Mock Security Checkpoint. Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information

Things Not Seen Essay Example for Free

Things Not Seen Essay Things Not Seen Author: Andrew Clements Genre: Fiction Favorite Character amp; Why: My favorite character in this story was Robert Phelps also known as â€Å"Bobby†, because Bobby feels invisible to his parents, even before he actually is invisible. He feels like they put work before him, and don’t notice what he wants or who he is, which I can relate to. Reasons I liked this Book: The reasons I liked this book is because it shows how this teenager has to deal with being invisible and not knowing if he’ll ever go back to normal. Also because this book makes you think about how you would feel and deal with the fact knowing that you’re invisible and no one can see you. Summary: Fifteen year old Bobby Phillips wakes up one morning and discovers he’s become invisible. After he proves to his parents that je has turn invisible he is forced to stay at home and not to tell anyone that he has become invisible. Then Bobby’s parents get into a car accident that causes them to be hospitalized. So Bobby then meets a blind girl named Alicia in a library. And later on learns that about Bobby’s â€Å"condition† that he has. Later on the law gets involved and investigates why Bobby has not been seen, which could end up with his parents in jail. On this difficult journey that Bobby has to face with his parents and his new friend Alicia by his side to help him find out why he has become invisible. 1st Quote: I cant see myself! You cant see me. I cant be seen like, Im invisible! † (3) This quote is important because it shows how scared Bobby is and how he reacts to his parents about him not being able to see himself. This can give you an idea on how he will deal with him being invisible later on. 2nd Quote: â€Å"But then come the tears. Mom slumps down in her chair and starts crying, and I cant take that. I can never take that. †   (6) This shows how Bobby’ s Condition is begging to affect his mother.

Attitudes Of University Students In Lebanon Towards Homosexuality

Attitudes Of University Students In Lebanon Towards Homosexuality Recently, almost all cultures have witnessed increasing trends in homosexuality. As a result, more and more organizations protecting gay, lesbian, and bisexual rights have emerged. One factor that seems to affect the emotional and social development of gays and lesbians is the attitudes of society toward them (Bowen Bourjeois, 2001). Much research has been conducted since late 1970s focusing on the factors that affect heterosexuals attitudes toward gays and lesbians (Whitley, 1988). Gender, religion, education, as well as race are some of the factors that play a role in determining these attitudes (Whitley, 1988; Negy Eisenman, 2005; Landen Innala, 2002; Grapes, 2006). Studies conducted in the United States, Australia, Turkey, Hong Kong, Sweden and Canada have indicated that most attitudes towards gays and lesbians are negative in general (Negy Eisenman, 2005; Landen Innala, 2002; Hopwood Connors, 2002; Schellenberg, Hirt, Sears, 1999). It is suspected that the prevailing attitudes in Lebanon are similar to those in the countries mentioned earlier. However, because of the lack of concrete research on this topic in Lebanon, it is necessary that a study be conducted in order to investigate the attitudes towards gays and lesbians among university students in Lebanon. The purpose of this study was to determine the attitudes that students at universities in Lebanon have towards gays and lesbians. Since previous research have shown gender and choice of major to be of great importance in determining university students attitudes towards homosexuality, this study also compared the attitudes of male vs. female, as well as Social sciences and Art students vs. Natural sciences and Business students. Review of the Literature One of the main problems associated with homosexuality in the Middle East is the negative attitudes that Arabs have towards gay men and lesbians. These attitudes are further complicated by international politics which slow down social progress in Middle Eastern countries. As a result, strict Arab morality is imposed in these countries as a means of defense against Western trends that promote female nudity and homosexuality. However, these negative attitudes could not be generalized as homophobia because they are directly linked to political, social, religious and cultural issues (Whitaker, 2006). Contrary to what many people believe, the attitudes towards gay men and lesbians are rather negative even in western countries such as the United States, Australia, Sweden and Canada (Negy Eisenman, 2005; Landen Innala, 2002; Hopwood Connors, 2002; Schellenberg, Hirt, Sears, 1999). Previous studies on attitudes of undergraduate university students specifically indicate mostly negative at titudes, with fluctuations that depend on factors such as gender, education, religiosity, as well as, race (Whitley, 1988; Negy Eisenman, 2005; Landen Innala, 2002; Grapes, 2006; Jonathan, 2008). Because of the lack of empirical evidence on the attitudes in Lebanon towards gay men and lesbians, it is important that this study be conducted so as to set stable grounds for this issue. The purpose of this study was to measure the attitudes of undergraduate university students in Lebanon towards gay men and lesbians. Hopwood and Connors (2002) examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward homosexuality at a university in Australia. The first hypothesis was that homophobic males were most likely to be religious and politically conservative. The second hypothesis stated that levels of homophobia would be more prevalent among business majors than humanities majors. The sample consisted of 104 students from two faculties; 58% were registered in a humanities class, while 42% were registered in a business class, and 65% of the sample was females. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire composed of three parts. The first part included The Heterosexual Attitudes to Homosexuals questionnaire which measured the attitudes of the participants toward issues such as befriending or social equality for homosexuals. The second part of the questionnaire measured the participants fear of AIDS/HIV with the use of the Fear of AIDS scale by Bouton et al. The third part involved the measurement of demographic variables intended to ascertain participants religiosity and political views. The results validated the hypotheses tested in this research. Fear of HIV/AIDS seemed to be the most powerful indicator of homophobia among men, with a correlation of 0.64. Gender was also a predictor of homophobia; males exhibited more negative attitudes towards homosexuals than women. The results also showed that religious individuals expressed more homophobia than nonreligious ones. Last but not least, academic major aided in predicting homophobia; as hypothesized, business majors expressed higher levels of homophobia and fear of HIV/AIDS than did the humanities students. In another similar study conducted by Schellenberg et al. (1999) at the University of Windsor in Canada investigated the attitudes of undergraduate university students toward gay men and lesbians. Comparisons were to be made on the basis of the participants gender, faculty, and year at university. One hypothesis was that participants enrolled in Arts or Social science faculties would have more positive attitudes than those enrolled in Science or Business faculties. Another hypothesis was that females were more likely to have positive attitudes than men toward gay and lesbian individuals. This studys sample consisted of 199 undergraduate students (101 males and 98 females) enrolled at the University of Windsor, who were hired so as to increase the chances that they would be enrolled in different faculties. Participants were asked general questions such as their year at college, their major, as well as their age and gender. Their attitudes were measured using the short form of Hereks Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay men scale which was designed to yield a subscale which measures attitudes toward lesbians, and other that measures attitudes toward gay men. The results of this study indicated that attitudes toward gay men changed as a function of the students faculties; that is to say that students in the faculties of Arts or Social Sciences had more positive attitudes than those in the faculties of Business or Science. Moreover, gender and year at university had a big role; women had more positive attitudes as compared to men regardless of their year at university. However, although new male students held negative attitudes toward gay men, these attitudes improved with the years spent at university. As for attitudes towards lesbians, gender and faculty played little or no role in determining the attitudes. However, the attitudes became more positive with the time at university. Along the same lines, Negy and Eisenman (2005) studied the attitudes and affects of African American and White college students toward lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals. More specifically, this study aimed to investigate how enculturation and religiosity might control the attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexuals. Because of inconsistent findings in the past, no formal hypothesis was made. Previous studies regarding African Americans showed that they seem to be more probable than whites to both see homosexuality as incorrect and to support gay rights laws. As a result, this study aimed to investigate African American attitudes while considering variables which may influence homophobia such as culture, religiosity, and sociodemographics. The studys sample consisted of 77 African Americans (22 male, 48 female) and 143 non-Hispanic whites (38 male, 105 female) who attended a public university in Southeast U.S. 90% of the African Americans and 94% of the Whites were exclusively heterosexuals, and 89% of the African Americans and 76% of the Whites were Christian. In order to measure the three variables mentioned previously, several questionnaires were handed out to the participants. Questionnaires included a Demographic Sheet which inquires the age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and sexual orientation of the participants. It also inquired the level of parental education as well as the years of education of the participants parents so as to infer the socioeconomic status of each. Moreover, participants commitment to religion was assessed based on two measures; one of which is the frequency of church attendance, and the second includes reasons for believing in a religion. The third questionnaire was a Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding, constructed to measure social desirability. The fourth questionnaire was the Index of Homophobia by Hudson Ricketts which measured homophobia among the participants. A fifth questionnaire was the Heterosexual Attitudes Toward Homosexuality (HATH) which measured attitudes and beliefs regarding gay and lesbian individuals. Finally, a sixth questionnaire, African American Acculturation Scale, was handed out to the African American participants only to measure how much African American respondents were absorbed into a traditional African American culture. The results indicated that even though African American participants affective and attitudinal reactions to lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals may be more negative than those of White students, this difference faded when regularity of church attendance, religious dedication, and SES were considered. So for both, African Americans and Whites, the three variables church attendance, religiosity and SES served as predictors of homonegativity. Bowen and Bourgeois (2001) examined the attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals based on certain social psychology theories. They first hypothesized that having had more LGB acquaintances in the past would yield more positive existing attitudes. The second hypothesis was that respondents were more likely to rate their personal attitudes toward LGB more positively than their friends or typical students as a result of pluralistic ignorance. The third hypothesis predicted that students attitudes would change with regards to the residence halls (i.e students from the same residence hall would share the same attitude) based on the Dynamic Social Impact Theory. The last hypothesis stated that present contact with LGB individuals would yield more positive approaches regardless of the respondents past contact with LGBs. Questionnaires were sent out by mail to 240 undergraduate students in two residence halls (6 Floors in building A and 5 floors in building B), however only 109 students completed them (48 females and 51 males). The questionnaire included only a Gay/Lesbian/Bisexual Attitudes questionnaire made of a 7 point Likert type scale. Respondents were inquired to provide three responses: the first about his/her attitude toward LGB, the second about his/her beliefs about how friends would respond, and third they had to rate how they thought the typical student would reply. Respondents were also asked about the number of previous LGB acquaintances, as they were asked to indicate how many openly LGB individuals resided in their residence halls and on their individual floors. The results of this study confirmed the hypotheses constructed at the very beginning. Respondents actually did represent themselves as having more positive attitudes towards LGB individuals than their friends and the typical student, proving the pluralistic ignorance theory. Moreover, consistent with the contact hypothesis, respondents who referred to as few as one or two explicitly LGB students in their residence halls or on their floor held considerably more positive attitudes than students who knew none. Some limitations of this study could be the small sample, the ethnic homogeneity of the respondents. Moreover, the low response rates could have been an indication of bias since it is possible that the students with more negative attitudes did not respond. In an interesting research article by Landen and Innala (2002), the effects of a biological explanation on attitudes towards gays and lesbians in Sweden were examined. The purpose of this study was to test whether attitudes towards homosexuals differed between people who supported the biological explanation and those who supported a psychological explanation. Comparisons were also to be made between the attitudes of men and those of women, as well as between an old age group and a young age group. A sample of 992 people was randomly selected from the National Registration and was sent questionnaires by mail. 668 out of the 992 people returned the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of ten questions that covered the participants beliefs about the origin of homosexuality, the integration of homosexuals in the society as well as homosexual friendships. Participants ranged between 18 and 70 years of age, with the median age being 44 years. The results of this study supported previous findings that proposed that individuals supporting the biological explanation of homosexuality had more tolerant attitudes toward it (CITE). Moreover, the more participants were acquainted with gays and lesbians, the more liberal attitudes they held toward them. Also, the results of this study showed that women and the younger age group tended to have more positive attitudes towards homosexuals than those who believed in a psychological explanation of homosexuality. Out of the 668 people, a little more than half of them (51%) believed in a biological explanation, whereas the remaining 49% believed in a psychological explanation. This study supports theories of the prominence of positive attitudes among people who believed that homosexuality had a biological origin, as well as people who had more personal contacts with homosexuals (CITE). In an attempt to inspect the prevalent attitudes towards homosexuals among Turkish university students, Cirakoglu (2006) aimed to examine the students beliefs regarding the causes of homosexuality. The study also aimed to compare how participants attitudes varied towards the labels gay and lesbian. Finally, the attitudes of participants who had had previous social contact with homosexuals were measured. Cirakoglu (2006) hypothesized that the label gay would elicit the most negative attitudes, whereas the label lesbian would trigger more positive ones. And, in relation to previous studies, he hypothesized that participants who had prior social contact with a homosexual would have more positive attitudes than those who hadnt. Participants of this research included 334 private university students (140 women and 194 men) in Turkey. Students were given questions regarding their demographic information, as they were also given a 50-item scale for the causes of homosexuality and a 19-item attitude scale. When asked about previous contact with at least one homosexual, 41.82% of participants reported having had contact with a homosexual. The results of Cirakoglus study seemed to verify the hypotheses stated at the beginning. The label lesbian seemed to elicit more positive attitudes than did the term gay or homosexual. It seemed that the term gay triggered the most negative attitudes among the three labels (CITE). Moreover, men had rather negative attitudes towards homosexuals, unlike women who held more positive attitudes. As hypothesized earlier and in accordance to previous research, participants who reported having previous social contact with homosexuals held more positive attitudes than participants who reported no prior social contact. It is interesting to note that, participants who had no social contact with homosexuals seemed to believe that homosexuality stems from a psychological or physiological disorder; participants who reported prior contact, however, believed that homosexuality is a choice of lifestyle (CITE). Since South Africa became the fifth country to legalize homosexual marriages in 2006, Mwaba (2009) studied the attitudes and beliefs of South African students regarding homosexuality and same-sex marriages. Even though South African law protected its homosexual citizens rights and bans any sort of discrimination against them, the general attitudes of students remained negative. Mwabas sample was made up of 150 undergraduate students at a university in Western Cape in South Africa. These students were hired during a time of intense debate after the validation of homosexual marriages in 2006. The samples mean age was 18.3 years, 83% of which were females. Also, 68% of the sample students were Christians. An 18-item questionnaire was used to measure the attitudes toward homosexual marriages and homosexuality. The results signified rather conservative attitudes among the sample, as almost 44% thought that homosexuality should be socially unacceptable rather than acceptable in South Africa. However, when it came to granting homosexuals equal rights, 41% only believed that the government was right in doing so, with the majority of the sample (59%) opposed it. 37% thought there was nothing wrong in discriminating against homosexuals, and 71% indicated that they thought the marriage of two people of the same sex to be strange. But overall, those who believed that homosexual marriages should be legalized were almost equal to those who were against it (51% and 49% respectively). One of the factors that seems to affect peoples attitudes towards homosexuality is their level of education. In one of her studies, Grapes (2006) investigated the relationship between the level of education and the attitudes towards homosexuals and their rights. Grapes hypothesized that as the level of education increases, the attitudes towards homosexuals become more liberal. She also hypothesized, in accordance to literature, that females will have more tolerant attitudes than males. Grapes obtained data from the General Social Survey which was conducted by the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago (Grapes, 2006). Her two independent variables were gender and level of education, and her dependent variable was the attitudes toward gays and gay rights. The attitudes were measured by choosing four specific questions that address homosexuality in the General Social Survey (Grapes, 2006). The sample consisted of 740 participants. Consistent with previous studies, Grapes (2006) results prove that gender plays a big role in determining the attitudes toward gay rights and homosexuals. Females held more positive attitudes than did males. Moreover, Grapes established a multivariate relationship between level of education, gender and attitudes toward gay rights (2006). She found that males who had a degree lower than high school were 36% more inclined to be against equal rights for homosexuals. Whereas females with a graduate diploma are 28% more likely to be supportive of homosexuals rights than females with an education lower than high school (Grapes, 2006). Congruently, Herek (1988) used a sample of 405 students to study what contributes to heterosexuals reaction formation to gay and lesbian individuals. First, he wanted to determine how heterosexuals attitudes were affected by gender. Second, he inquired about the contribution of social psychological factors to the attitude formation toward homosexuals. Last, he questioned whether attitudes differ toward lesbians and gays men (Herek, 1988). Hereks sample included 405 students (226 females, 179 males) from six different universities in the United States. The participants presented information about their religious backgrounds and how often they attend religious services, as well as the number of their gay/lesbian acquaintances. An Attitude Toward Lesbians and Gays (ATLG) scale composed of a 20-item likert scale was developed by Herek (1988). The scale had two ten-item subscales: half of which measure attitudes toward lesbians, whereas the other half measures attitudes toward gay men. Hereks results (1988) proved that male participants held more negative attitudes than females on both the ATL (Attitudes Toward Lesbians) and ATG (Attitudes Toward Gays) scale, yet they held less negative attitudes toward lesbians. Hereks study also verified that attitudes toward homosexuals are influenced by participants loyalty to traditional gender and family values, as well as by the level of their religious commitments and previous experience with gay men and lesbians (Herek, 1988). Last but not least, and in accordance to the Pluralistic ignorance theory in Bowen and Bourgeois study (2001), participants who held negative attitudes were likely to presume that their friends had similar attitudes towards homosexuals. Likewise, attitudes of undergraduate university students toward gay men and lesbians were investigated in a study conducted by Engstrom and Sedlacek (1997). The study aimed to investigate whether heterosexual college students at a southeast university held negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Moreover, the study investigated the type of situations in which negative feelings toward homosexuals were expressed (Engstrom Sedlacek, 1997). The studys randomly selected sample consisted of 224 heterosexual university students; half of which were males, and half of which were females. Engstrom and Sedlacek (1997) administered the SAS Sexual Orientation Survey to measure the students attitudes toward gays and lesbians. The survey contained a likert-type scale ranging from one to five; it consisted of ten statements that covered personal, social, and academic situations. Three different forms of the survey were produced and mailed to participants: one referred to student (with no specified sexual orientation), the second referred to Gay male student, and the third referred to lesbian student, (Engstrom Sedlacek, 1997). Engstrom and Sedlaceks study confirmed that male students attitudes were more negative toward gay men than toward lesbians. It seemed that participants displayed more intolerant attitudes in situations where they must interact with gay males in public. Moreover, despite the fact that women hold more negative attitudes toward lesbians, in this study, females had surprisingly more negative attitudes toward gay males (Engstrom Sedlacek, 1997). However, and despite the negative attitudes toward homosexuals, participants seemed to be infuriated at the thought of the physical assault of a homosexual. This study gives insight as to how and in what situations stereotypical attitudes could be formed and allows further implications for practice (Engstrom Sedlacek, 1997).